By Mary O’Kane April 10, 2025
Solar and wind power plant in Germany. © Bim
As the world becomes more unpredictable, many countries, including the United States, are prioritizing energy independence. Achieving net-zero carbon emissions in addition means getting the most out of every available resource and this will be difficult for any country that relies solely on others to meet their energy demands.
To fulfill our growing energy needs, governments and industry need to work together to support versatile, self-sustaining energy systems. We should be exploring solutions that combine abundant renewable energy resources with intelligent system design and creative engineering. Enter solar panels.
An attractive quality of solar panels is that they are manufactured on a production line and are modular in design. In other words, you can build the solar array you want by piecing together individual cells, making them uniquely versatile. Solar modules can be made in many sizes and used in various energy systems, ranging from small off-grid setups to large-scale grid installations.
However, to keep costs as low as possible, solar panels currently are produced on large scales in highly specialized production lines. This scale of production limits how and where solar panels can be produced. To get the most out of solar technology, we need to increase manufacturing capacity in as many locations as possible.
This includes exploring new solar designs and materials, such as perovskite solar cells (PSCs). These innovative solar cells can be made using solution processing techniques (like spray coating or printing) at much lower costs than current solar technology. This lowers the barrier to production.
The Rise of Photovoltaics
Over the past few years, the manufactured and installed capacity of solar panels, or photovoltaics (PV), has skyrocketed worldwide. Solar PV made up more than 60% of new renewable energy capacity installed between 2010-2023.1 This is set to increase to up to 80% by 2030, as PV production and distribution is estimated to triple.
Most of this increase has so far been driven by increased manufacturing and installation of PV throughout China. Since the 1990s, China has heavily invested in increasing PV manufacturing, and today, 80% of the world’s solar panels are produced there.2 Furthermore, in 2023 China installed as much solar PV as the entire world installed in 2022. This makes a great argument that the more PV a country can create, the more PV can be installed.
As a world leader in solar technology, there is growing demand in the U.S. to increase domestic production of solar panels. Going into 2025, the manufacturing capacity of the U.S. was approaching 40 GW – 5.7x the manufacturing capacity available at the end of 2022.3
U.S. investment in solar technology is also happening on a local scale, particularly in rural areas. These smaller communities can incorporate renewable energy in innovative ways. In March 2024, the U.S. Department of Agriculture announced $139 million worth of short-term loans available for rural electric co-operatives, local governments, tribal nations, and other groups to install solar systems in rural areas.4
This progression needs to continue if domestically produced solar is to be a significant supplier of U.S. electricity.
Challenges with Silicon PV: Energy Independence vs. Economy of Scale
Over 95% of solar panels are made from crystalline silicon, a highly purified material that requires complex and expensive manufacturing processes. The set-up and running costs of c-Si solar panel factories are very high. Governments can help by providing grants and tax breaks, such as the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA), but set-up costs will always be very expensive.
Record perovskite solar cells efficiencies compared to the best-performing silicon single junction solar panels over time.8 © Ossila Ltd., data from National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Therefore, it makes sense that it is more financially viable to produce massive quantities of c-Si solar panels. A fundamental reason PV costs have reduced so drastically is the rapid scaling of manufacturing capacity in China.
However, we need to consider energy independence. Global dependence on one location for PV manufacturing could lead to vulnerabilities in the future of solar technology. Increasing the amount of independently produced PV in different countries worldwide would have several benefits:5
- Reducing dependence on supply from specific countries means that PV will not be affected by international relations, as fossil fuels have been, making PV scaling more geopolitically stable.
- Reducing environmental impact by limiting solar panel transportation
- Avoiding import taxes and high tariffs
This last point is especially true today, as import taxes for goods from China may rise to 60% in the U.S.,6 which will certainly impact PV prices. Independent of current government consideration, the White House has previously stated that “the tariff rate on solar cells (whether or not assembled into modules) will increase from 25% to 50%“ throughout 2024.7
One issue with c-Si PV is that the costs are always going to favor larger scale production. It will require significant investment, significant government cooperation, and private sector interest to competitively manufacture c-Si PV.
Are Perovskites Solar Cells the Answer?
Since their introduction in 2009, perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have improved rapidly, achieving efficiencies that rival c-Si (26.7% vs 27.3%).8 PSCs are solar cells which use a novel material known as a perovskite crystal as the absorber layer, instead of c-Si.9
Unlike silicon, PSCs can be manufactured using simple, cost-effective techniques like inkjet printing and spray coating. In other words, these can be made at much lower cost and more easily than traditional c-Si solar panels. One study suggests that domestic production of PSCs could have a 60% cost reduction compared to importing c-Si solar panels.1
Especially with lower initial set-up costs and no import taxes, domestically produced PSCs become economically competitive – even when produced on a smaller scale. Thus it will be more economically feasible to set up solar panel factories for specific applications.Additionally, existing know-how and equipment from the printing industry can be repurposed to make printed solar panels, lowering production barriers. There are already multiple companies in the U.S. working on mass production of printed perovskite solar cells.
Perovskite Solar Cells for Specialist Uses
Perovskite solar cells also offer unique opportunities for innovative applications, such as for agrivoltaics where land is used for agriculture and solar power generation simultaneously. In some situations, integration of agrivoltaics could improve land efficiency by up to 60%.10
In fact, a case study in Germany found that in summer the electricity load of a farm, including charging the electric vehicles for harvesting, was almost completely met by the agrivoltaics system.10 However, there can be issues with reduced crop yield as opaque cells block sunlight.
One answer to this is to use semi-transparent solar cells. Unlike with c-Si, you can easily adapt the fundamental properties of PSCs. This creates semi-transparent solar cells which allow portions of sunlight through while absorbing some light to generate electricity, essentially using sunlight twice. This could help solve the yield issue seen with current agrivoltaics systems.
Other specific applications of perovskite solar cells include, but are not limited to:
- Flexible or Lightweight Solar Panels: PSCs require a much thinner layer than c-Si so they can be used in applications where c-Si solar is too heavy, rigid, or bulky. This feature also facilitates flexible perovskite solar cells.
- Off-Grid Solutions: Flexible and lightweight PSCs are ideal for portable power systems in remote areas.
- Indoor Solar Panels: PSCs perform well under low-light conditions, making them suitable for indoor energy harvesting.
These niche uses will require different compositions, device designs, and materials. Therefore, the ability to produce smaller amounts of PV in smaller, more cost-effective facilities allows us to get the most out of cutting-edge photovoltaic technology.
Challenges to Overcome
Perovskite solar cells are currently in the R&D stage of development. However, many research institutions and private companies are working to facilitate PSC’s journey to market.
The main issue with PSCs is their stability. Key materials used in PSC devices are sensitive to moisture and oxygen, causing performance to deteriorate rapidly. These effects can be partially mitigated by depositing these layers in a glove box11 and encapsulating devices properly.12 However, to compete with silicon, more research is needed to improve the stability of these devices.
Another challenge is that lead is a core component of the perovskite crystal structure. This could create issues of toxicity, environmental impact, and supply chain. While lead is commonly used in industry, the implications of using lead in PSCs must be fully considered. Proper encapsulation and comprehensive life cycle assessments are essential for safe PSC deployment.
Other challenges include standardizing manufacturing processes, ensuring product safety, and lowering the cost of modules as much as possible. We must find production methods and use materials that are compatible with large-scale production to ensure feasibility and scalability.
Producing Perovskite Solar Cells Domestically
Flexible design and easy production make solar energy an obvious front-runner for achieving our energy targets. While traditional solar panels have led to record adoption of PV worldwide, emerging technologies like perovskite solar cells provide new opportunities to adapt and grow solar technology. Perovskite solar cells could help significantly increase domestic production of solar panels and get the most out of solar technology.
About the Author
Mary O’Kane has a PhD in perovskite solar cells, with a specialization in device engineering and precursor chemistry. As an Application Scientist
at Ossila, she is responsible for developing, sourcing, and reviewing resources that help customers unlock the full potential of the company’s tools and materials.
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